The purpose of this section is to give a broad overview of the recent and substantial decline in fishery-related mortality of wild coastal coho, and to describe exploitation rates that are expected to be associated with future fishery management measures. Additional technical information is contained in ODFW's management measures and in previous published status reviews.

Coho salmon have been harvested in Oregon since the mid-1800s. Initially, most harvest occurred in terminal gill-net fisheries located at the mouths of most coastal river basins. These fisheries were almost entirely eliminated by the mid-1950s, and none occur presently. Ocean commercial troll fisheries were initiated sometime around 1912. By 1919 there were one to two thousand boats fishing off the mouth of the Columbia. Troll fisheries rapidly expanded to become the primary fishery on Oregon coastal coho stocks. Ocean recreational fisheries for Oregon coho increased in the 1950s and peaked from about the mid-1970s to mid-1980s. The exploitation rate of ocean fisheries on coho generally increased in concert with growing commercial and recreational fleets and peaked near an estimated 90 percent in the mid-1970s. Since then, fishery restrictions based on conservation concerns have gradually reduced exploitation rates to levels less than 15 percent. The prognosis is for fishery exploitation rates on Oregon coastal coho to remain below 15 percent until substantial stock recovery occurs.

This section summarizes the chronology of fishery exploitation of Oregon coastal. Estimates of fishery-related mortality are more reliable since 1970. Oregon's proposed regime for managing future ocean salmon fisheries that affect coastal coho is designed to obtain measurable and substantial recovery of depressed populations prior to allowing the possibility to increase ocean salmon fishery opportunities. This is achieved by requiring attainment of spawner escapement rebuilding criteria in four discrete geographical groupings of coastal coho stocks in the parent generation, before modest increases in harvest opportunities on their progeny are allowed.

The matrix at the end of this section of the chapter (Proposed Fishery Management Regime) illustrates the proposed fishery management regime for each stock sub aggregate, with parent spawner escapement and current marine survival as the adjustment criteria for a particular allowable fishery impact rate. Total fishery impacts represent all fishing-related mortality, including both marine and freshwater fisheries and from both retention and catch and release fishing. Fishery impact rates range from a low of less than 15% under conditions like 1994-96 to a high of up to 35% if two generations of spawner rebuilding have been demonstrated and marine survival is high enough to expect continued improvements in spawner escapement for a third generation.

Focusing first on the lowest row in the matrix, fishery impacts are proposed to remain at < 15% if parent spawners of a stock sub aggregate have not achieved the lower level spawner escapement rebuilding criteria. Under medium and high marine survival conditions, allocating 85% of the annual abundance to spawning escapement should facilitate rebuilding to the lower level spawner escapement criteria in the next generation. While the lowest-left matrix category allows a fishery impact of < 15%, it is important to note that this proposal is not intended to call for any increase in harvest impacts over the recent historic low levels, when the coastal stock sub aggregate is in the lowest parental escapement tier. Since 1993, total fishery impacts were managed for actual pre-season targets of 10%, 12%, and 13% in 1994-96, respectively. Status quo fishery impacts of 10-13% are proposed for situations with status quo ocean conditions and the parental spawning escapement is well below the lower spawner escapement criteria. In the event parent spawners decline to even lower levels than seen in recent years, further reductions in controllable domestic impacts are proposed, recognizing that there is a limit to further by-catch reduction opportunities. However, in the event parent spawners improve to levels near, but still below, the lower rebuilding criteria level, and significant numbers of healthy stocks would otherwise be available to fisheries, the small increase to < 15% could be allowed.

Increases in fishery impacts above < 15% level are proposed only after the lower spawner escapement rebuilding criteria has been achieved in at least the parent generation and significant improvements in the next generation of spawner escapement can be projected:

• The first increases in fishery impact rates (to either < 20% or < 25%) are proposed to be allowed when the parental brood achieves the lower spawner escapement criteria and ocean conditions are projected to be favorable enough that the progeny will return at least 150% of the parent level to the spawning grounds after fishery effects.
• The next level of increases in fishery impacts are allowed after rebuilding has been shown in two parent generations and ocean conditions are projected to be sufficient to show continued improvement. When the grandparent generation has achieved the lower spawner criteria and the parent generation has achieved the higher spawner criteria, fishery impacts of either 30% or 35% are proposed, depending on productivity of ocean conditions.

A cap of 35% in total fishery impacts is proposed regardless of high parental spawning levels or projected favorable ocean conditions to test the effects of high spawner levels. A limitation of < 15% remains in effect even at the two higher tiers of parent escapement if ocean conditions are not favorable to preserve rebuilding progress achieved to that point.

Introduction

The purpose of this section is to summarize significant changes that have occurred in relation to hatchery coho management in the last two decades. Overall, there have been significant changes, as follows:

• The number of coho released each year has declined significantly. During the 1980s, ODFW coastal hatcheries released about 6 million coho, and private hatcheries about 12 million coho annually. Projected coastal coho releases are about 2 million smolts annually.
• Transfers of coho stocks between basins were fairly common, but are now rare.
• Coho stocks from outside Oregon were released by private hatcheries, but such stocks are no longer released.
• Off-site releases of coho have been substantially reduced. Remaining off-site releases of coho generally include acclimation and return to their native basin for release.
• Off-site releases of surplus hatchery coho adults are rare.
• All hatchery coho smolts are now being marked.

All of the above changes are consistent with the Wild Fish Management Policy and the desire to manage hatchery fish in ways that are compatible with wild populations.

Three programs (discussed in more detail following the table) have released hatchery coho into Oregon coastal basins: ODFW hatcheries; ODFW Salmon and Trout Enhancement Program (STEP) projects; and private hatcheries. The table below compares numbers of coho salmon released from the three types of hatchery programs (brood years 1981, 1989, and 1993, which are the most recent complete data). Preliminary 1994 brood year data shows ODFW with a continued decline in fingerling/fry (0.03 million) and smolt (2.58 million on-site and 0.81 million off-site) releases; private hatcheries with no releases; and STEP with releases similar to the 1993 data.

Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Hatcheries

The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife operates seven hatcheries that produce coho salmon for release in Oregon coastal basins. Four of these hatcheries are involved in rearing coho stocks from other coastal basins for transfer and release in their native basins. With one exception (Cole Rivers Hatchery), the main purpose of the coho programs has been to supplement ocean coho harvest. Cole Rivers Hatchery, located on the Rogue River, was built as mitigation for Lost Creek Dam.

There has been a gradual shift in the intent of ODFW's coastal coho programs over the last decade due to several factors, including:

• Concerns over impacts and attempts to reduce impacts of hatchery fish on wild populations.
• Implementation of genetic protection strategies of the Wild Fish Management Policy.
• Implementation of the results of research and hatchery monitoring.
• Attempts to improve the harvest of hatchery fish.

Generally, these changes have begun a shift from an emphasis on ocean fishery supplementation to providing harvest opportunities for hatchery fish while minimizing impacts on wild coho populations. Specific changes include:

• Forty percent reduction in the total number of coho released by ODFW hatcheries (1981 versus 1993 brood years).
• Near elimination of fingerling/fry releases.
• Substantial reduction in off-site releases.
• Use of acclimation facilities for many of the remaining off-site release programs.
• Significant reduction of releases of hatchery coho into basins other than that from which the stock was developed.
• Additional reductions in release numbers and a shift to native or wild type broodstocks are proposed for initiation with the 1996 brood.

Information on ODFW's hatchery program are in the Chapter 17B State Agency Measures.

ODFW Salmon and Trout Enhancement Program

The STEP program began in 1982 with four main goals:

1. Citizen volunteer participation in ODFW management objectives.
2. Rehabilitation and enhancement of natural habitat for salmon and trout.
3. Rehabilitation and enhancement of populations of salmon and trout.
4. Public education.

As part of actions to achieve these goals, some STEP projects have been involved in the rearing and release of coho salmon. The projects, which have included work to restore wild populations and to enhance fisheries, have released coho at all life history stages. The vast majority of projects releasing coho salmon have involved the use of hatchboxes and release of unfed fry. The number of unfed fry released increased rapidly with program development, but has declined in recent years.

The smolt releases of the last few years are mostly in the Coos Basin at the Noble Creek site. This is a STEP hatchery that does final rearing and release of Coos stock coho smolts reared mostly at Cole Rivers Hatchery. The site is low in the basin (tributary of Isthmus Slough) and allows for segregation, harvest, and recovery of returning hatchery coho away from wild coho populations.

Private Hatcheries

Three private hatcheries have released coho salmon in Oregon's coastal basins:

• Oregon Aqua-Foods Inc. (Yaquina Bay and Coos Bay)
  Began operations with the 1973 brood year.
  Last releases at the Coos Bay site were with the 1980 brood year.
  Last releases at the Yaquina Bay site were with the 1991 brood year.

• Anadromous Inc. (Coos Bay)
  Began operations with the 1975 brood year.
  Last releases were with the 1987 brood year.

• Domsea Farms (Siuslaw Bay)
  Began operations with the 1981 brood year.
  Last releases were with the 1986 brood year.

The hatcheries mostly released foreign stock coho, as well as both yearling and zero-age smolts. Releases peaked in the early 1980s at over 23 million coho. Some hatcheries also experimented with ocean releases (up to 1 million coho released at sea in a given year). However, there have been no private hatchery coho releases since the 1991 brood year, and no further releases are anticipated. Any future releases of coho from a private hatchery would be managed under a plan of operations subject to approval by the Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission.

Introduction

The purpose of this section is to give a broad overview of the changes in habitat management that have been occurring during the last two decades and that are expected as a result of the measures in support of the OCSRI Plan submitted by agencies, watershed councils, and industrial and private landowners. The vast majority of management measures that have been implemented and are proposed for implementation in the near future are related to habitat management. Emphasis in development of the OCSRI Plan has been focused on identifying changes that can be accomplished to assist conservation and restoration of coastal salmon. The Plan recognizes that human population growth and related issues such as demand for water and other natural resources, construction of new roads, plus natural occurrences (e.g., severe winter floods and drought) may affect the habitat that supports coastal coho, steelhead and cutthroat.

Evaluation of habitat management measures is far more complicated than evaluating changes in harvest regulations or hatchery management programs. The following points illustrate some of the difficulties involved in evaluating habitat measures.

Many of the measures related to habitat management promote a sense of optimism. However, proposed changes must be implemented and evaluated on a watershed basis to determine if the productive capacity of aquatic habitats and riparian areas actually improves over current conditions. It is impossible to predict with certainty what the habitat management measures, collectively, will achieve, or how they will interact with proposed harvest and hatchery management measures to affect production of coho or other anadromous salmonids over a coastwide or ESU-wide scale. It is also important to note that the Conservation Plan explicitly asserts that management measures will be changed and improved over time, if needed, based on information obtained from the Monitoring Program.

Positive Changes Related to Habitat Management

Compared to a few years ago, there have been many significant improvements that relate to habitat conservation and restoration in the Oregon coastal region. The Northwest Forest Plan, for example, represents a recent landmark change in the conservation emphasis that is applied on federal forest lands, many of which include important productive areas for coastal salmonids. The Oregon Forest Practice rules also are a marked improvement to the level of protection that will be provided on both private and state forest lands. Watershed councils that were established in the south-coastal region several years ago have developed science-based analyses to identify limiting factors and are in the process of implementing action plans to address habitat problems. New Watershed Councils are being formed in the mid- and north-coast region. Special protocols are being developed to protect sensitive aquatic habitats in the Elliott and Tillamook State Forests. Finally, the Department of Agriculture is placing emphasis on efforts to implement Senate Bill 1010 in priority areas of the Tillamook, Umpqua, and Rogue basins, and expects to achieve material improvement in riparian and aquatic habitats in agricultural areas of these basins.

A summary of significant efforts that have occurred or are proposed relative to conservation of productive salmon, steelhead, and cutthroat habitat includes the following examples:

• Many fish passage problems associated with state highways and forest roads will be assessed and remediated within the next ten years, and revised maintenance and construction standards will continue to reduce fish passage impacts in the future.

• Fish passage problems related to diversion and push-up dams will be greatly reduced through multi-agency coordination and action to address enforcement of existing laws, more rapid implementation of screening, and development of alternatives to traditional water diversion methods.

• Riparian zone health and related stream functions (e.g., shade, large woody debris [LWD], bank stability, and nutrient cycle) will be greatly improved through a combination of improved forest practices rules, implementation of new Goal 5 standards, implementation of SB 1010 on agricultural lands, improved state highway construction and maintenance measures, and voluntary efforts of landowners. Riparian protection and water quality on forest land is regulated through the Oregon Forest Practices Act and related administrative rules. The rules establish a desired future condition for riparian vegetation. For most fish-bearing streams, the desired future condition is to grow and maintain stands similar to "mature forest conditions" within riparian management areas of specified widths. These widths represent approximately 70 to 95 percent of the potential source area for large woody debris recruitment, respectively. For non-fish-bearing streams the desired future condition is to grow and retain vegetation sufficient to support the functions and processes that are important to downstream waters that have fish, maintain the quality of domestic water, and supplement wildlife habitat across the landscape. The prescriptions described in the rules have been designed to meet the desired future conditions on average across the landscape. However, the prescriptions are based upon some assumptions about stand condition and growth and may not ideally address all site conditions. Monitoring is in place to evaluate the adequacy of the prescriptions and the assumptions upon which they were developed. On OFIC member industrial lands in core areas and state forest lands through western Oregon, meeting the desired future condition in the most timely manner will be assured through several voluntary measures that retain additional conifer within riparian areas along both fish-bearing and non-fish-bearing streams on a more site-specific basis. These measures are described more fully Chapter 17B.

• Instream habitat projects in areas most likely to benefit species of concern are being planned and implemented. Many of these projects attempt to improve habitat by placing large woody debris, creating backwater alcoves, and improve connectivity to wetlands and side channels. Habitat projects will remain a major component of salmonid restoration efforts for years to come. Specific incentives to encourage such actions are provided and may be strengthened, existing economic and regulatory obstacles to conducting such projects and barriers to these actions will be reduced. Habitat restoration projects will be guided by a cadre of fish biologists funded by forest landowners that will assist landowners implement the ODFW Habitat Restoration Guides and other restoration actions.

• Instream habitat will be improved by "protecting" and encouraging beavers on key sites. This work will involve adaptive management and cooperative working arrangements that include land management agencies, ODFW, and many private landowners.

• Instream flows, especially in core production areas that are critical to conservation of salmonids, will be improved through: a) the purchase, lease, or donation of water rights; b) improved administration and enforcement of water rights laws; c) monitoring; and d) voluntary efforts.

• Sediment delivery (including debris flows) will be reduced through implementation of forest practice BMPs and a forest road erosion and risk reduction project on forest lands; improved fill-removal administration; improved state highway maintenance efforts; and implementation of SB 1010 on agricultural lands. Forest practice rules and administrative processes will be reviewed over the next year to identify opportunities for further reducing water quality and habitat impacts from landslides.

• Forest roads represent a high risk for increased sediment delivery to streams. For roads and other activities that may be sediment sources, the forest practice rules include state-of-the-art practices that when implemented minimize sediment source and delivery. However, many roads built prior to current practices retain higher risks for sediment delivery than would be the case if the roads had been constructed under the current standards of design. The OCSRI addresses the legacy of risk posed by forest roads through an aggressive program to identify and correct potential road sediment risk related to cut- and fill-slope failure, road surface drainage, stream crossings and fish passage. It is expected that approximately $130 million will be spent on industrial and state forest lands over the next ten years to address the legacy road issue.

• Adverse effects of gravel mining will be reduced by limiting removal to recruitment, developing and implementing best management practices, considering time or area restrictions to be applied in core production areas, and improved monitoring and enforcement.

• Habitat condition will be assessed and restoration efforts will be effectively prioritized and implemented. Core areas will be identified and given special emphasis under all key measures.

• The Northwest Forest Plan will provide significant measures to conserve productive salmonid habitat on federal lands.

• Many new watershed councils have been organized and efforts are underway to establish councils in every coastal river basin. These watershed councils are conducting watershed assessment and developing action plans to correct limiting factors.

The many recent, new, and proposed management measures have the potential to materially improve the productive capacity of coastal basin habitats that support salmonids. Roughly 200 habitat management measures that are relevant to coho salmon have either been implemented or are proposed for implementation as part of the OCSRI. Hundreds of focused habitat restoration projects have been conducted during the past few years under the guidance of watershed councils and ODFW, and with financial support of private and industrial landowners.

Hundreds of similar projects are being planned for action in the next few years. A progressive evolution has been occurring in the quality of recent restoration work, and continued improvement in the quality of focused restoration work is expected with the results of current monitoring work. An inventory of habitat restoration projects on private industrial lands conducted by ODFW for the Oregon Forest Resources Institute provides an overview of the magnitude of effort, type of work, and the basis for design of restoration projects. Also, detailed monitoring of a number of habitat restoration projects conducted in the north coast area in 1995 and 1996 is expected to contribute to improved design of future similar projects.

The Crucial Role of Monitoring

A comprehensive monitoring program is an essential part of the Conservation Plan. Many management measures and restoration projects have been implemented recently, or are proposed for implementation in the near future. These measures, when evaluated individually, tend to indicate that certain habitat features should improve (in relation to the habitat needs of anadromous salmonids). For many habitat features, it was not possible to quantitatively predict whether the conditions will actually improve coastwide, or if the historic rate of decline in habitat condition will only be moderated. The answer to this question on a coastwide, or ESU-wide basis, is probably not quantifiable, especially given the promised evolutionary nature of the Conservation Plan. Only a well-designed monitoring program that tracks indicators of biological communities and their supporting habitats will establish whether conditions decline, stay the same, or get better. In addition, a properly designed and integrated monitoring and analysis program is essential to active adaptive management; such a program will provide for the process of testing alternative hypotheses through management action, learning from experience, and making appropriate change to policy and management practice.

Natural cyclic changes in the ocean environment have been identified as an extremely important determinant of survival, and therefore production, of Oregon coho salmon. The ocean environment has been generally unfavorable for survival of coho off the Oregon coast since the late 1970s. There is no indication that these unfavorable conditions will remain constant. A return to more favorable survival conditions is expected, based on the historic record. However, the timing of return to a more favorable survival scenario, and the magnitude of improvement that may occur, are unknown.

In hindsight, exploitation rates of 50% to 70% experienced by some coastal coho stocks as late as the early 1990s were clearly too high given the poor marine survival conditions experienced by the fish. As harvest has decreased, spawner abundance has increased (see Chapter 14). Since 1990, there has been a fairly steady increase in spawner abundance despite a generally flat trend in total production. Population modeling suggests that if marine survival continues at the level of the past decade, slow but steady rebuilding of coho salmon spawner populations should be expected, but little or no harvest opportunities. However, if marine survival improves by two- thirds, spawner abundance should rebuild rapidly to levels near full seeding within four generations even after providing increased harvest opportunities allowed under the proposed OCSRI harvest strategy.

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